What is LBA?
Logical Block Addressing refers to the scheme used by modern hard disks to overcome the bottlenecks presented by older BIOS limitations that do not detect large-capacity hard disks. LBA allocates a unique number to each sector. The hard disk circuitry translates this into the respective CHS values, which is comprehended by the BIOS.
What is Landing Zone?
During normal operation, the read/write heads levitate over the platter surface thanks to the air cushion created by the rotation. When powered down, the heads are brought to rest over an area on the platter where data is not stored. This is the landing zone.
What is Hybrid Drive?
These are hard drives that include both rotating disks as well as Flash memory based storage. This is an attempt to combine the benefits of the two types of storage media: the inexpensiveness of rotating platters and the non-volatility of Flash memory. The Flash memory component in a hybrid drive is merely a temporary storage area; the data is finally written onto the disk. Like the cache in regular hard drives, the Flash memory improves performance, and since unlike cache memory the data is not lost when powered down, startup time is reduced since there is no longer the need to wait for the disks to rev up.
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What is Head?
Read / write heads refer to the main reading and writing apparatus in a hard disk. The Read head contains thin films that display the GMR effect. The Write head is usually made of an electromagnetic substance that gets magnetised when electricity is passed to it, thus magnetising the spot below it.
What is Formatting?
Formatting is of two types—low-level and high-level. Low-level formatting creates the tracks and sectors that are used to store data. High-level formatting involves preparing the filesystem and creating a record of avoidable bad sectors in the partitions. All present hard disks are low-level-formatted by the manufacturer, and the user only performs a high-level format. A highlevel format can be performed in two ways: a Quick Format, which erases the existing file index and creates the desired file system, and a Thorough Format, which in addition also performs a bad sector scan.
What is GMR?
Giant Magneto Resistance is the phenomenon behind the technology used by the read heads in modern drives to read the data stored on disk platters. The GMR effect is a property of thin films of certain materials that experience large changes in resistance as a result of very small changes in magnetic field. This effect allows the information about changes in magnetic fields to be deciphered by detecting changes in resistance. And since even minute changes in magnetic field can be detected, these magnetised spots can be more closely packed, leading to greater storage area on a platter of the same size. The 2007 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to the discoverers of this effect—Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg.
What is Form Factor?
Hard disks come in different sizes to match the systems they are intended to be used in. The 3.5-inch hard disk is what is used in all Desktop PCs. The 2.5-inch hard disk is used in laptops. Some consumer electronics products like the iPod use a 1.8-inch internal hard disk.
What is Extended Partition?
An Extended Partition refers to the entry in the Master Partition Table that points to the location of the Extended Partition table. The Extended Partition is not assigned any letter.
What is eSATA?
External SATA is an interface that allows standalone SATA drives to be connected from outside the system. Since the SATA speeds extend to eSATA devices, eSATA offers the highest data transfer rates among all interfaces—namely, USB 2.0 and FireWire—at 3 Gigabits per second (in case of SATA 2).
What is DMA / UDMA?
Direct Memory Access / Ultra Direct Memory Access refers to a technology that allows a hard disk to manage data transfer without the aid of the CPU. This speeds up data transfers, while also leaving the CPU to perform other tasks. DMA / UDMA have gone through many iterations, the latest being UDMA 6, which offers transfer speeds of 133 Megabytes per second. DMA / UDMA modes are specified in the ATA standard. To achieve speeds above 33 Megabytes per second, as envisaged in UDMA3, a special 80-pin conductor cable is needed to reduce the interference that occurs between two data-carrying channels. Though the data is transferred using only 40 pins, the remaining pins are needed to ground interference created during the data transfer.
What is DMA / UDMA?
Direct Memory Access / Ultra Direct Memory Access refers to a technology that allows a hard disk to manage data transfer without the aid of the CPU. This speeds up data transfers, while also leaving the CPU to perform other tasks. DMA / UDMA have gone through many iterations, the latest being UDMA 6, which offers transfer speeds of 133 Megabytes per second. DMA / UDMA modes are specified in the ATA standard. To achieve speeds above 33 Megabytes per second, as envisaged in UDMA3, a special 80-pin conductor cable is needed to reduce the interference that occurs between two data-carrying channels. Though the data is transferred using only 40 pins, the remaining pins are needed to ground interference created during the data transfer.
What is Cylinder?
A platter is made up of concentric tracks along which the read / write head stores data. The tracks are numbered. A cylinder refers to the same-numbered tracks of all the platters, since, theoretically, they form a cylinder.
What is Cluster?
A cluster refers to the group of sectors that are manipulated as a unit. Depending on the filesystem and the size of the partition, the number of sectors that form a cluster changes. From the operating system’s point of view, the cluster is the smallest storage unit.
What is CHS?
Cylinder Head Sector is a naming scheme used to uniquely address every storage area or sector in a hard disk. Each sector can be uniquely identified, based on the number of the Cylinder, the read / write head operating on that platter, and the number of that sector in that cylinder.
What is Cache?
Cache is the memory incorporated in the hard disk that stores frequently- accessed data. This saves use of the read/write head, thus extending its life, besides, obviously, improving performance. A 2 MB cache is common in most hard drives, with the highest being 16 MB in the latest, large-capacity drives. The maximum transfer speeds of the interface that is mentioned in the drive specifications refers to the time it takes for the cache to send the data.
What is BPI?
Bits Per Inch refers to the number of bits stored per linear inch of a track.
What is Boot Sector?
Every partition in a hard disk contains critical data in the first sector, carrying information about loading the operating system. This first sector is called the boot sector. Any partition containing relevant information in the boot sector is termed bootable, and is called the Boot Partition.
What is Bad Sector?
Bad sectors are areas on a hard disk that are physically damaged. The data present in these areas cannot be read with normal software, and no data can be stored there. All hard disks, including new ones, have bad sectors, which are a normal occurrence during the manufacturing process. The locations of the bad sectors are recorded by the hard disk circuitry, ensuring that they are avoided. However, bad sectors can also form during use, either as a result of improper shutdowns—causing the read / write head to physically scratch the recording surface—or due to normal wear and tear. Newly-developed bad sectors can also be recorded to ensure that they are not accessed the next time. This can be done by performing a “thorough” format of the drive.
What is ATAPI?
Advanced Technology Attachment Packet Interface is a protocol that that allows optical drives to be connected through PATA cables to IDE controllers. This forms part of the ATA version 4 specifications.
What is ATA / IDE?
The ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment) specification deals with the interface between the motherboard and hard disks that have integrated circuitry. This standard is also referred to as IDE (or Integrated Drive Electronics). Earlier, the hard disk controller had to be separately plugged into an expansion slot, with cables running to the hard disk from the controller. ATA has many versions, which have increasingly improved the features and speeds of the connection. ATA 2 is also called Extended IDE (EIDE) because it introduced support for large drives by using the LBA naming scheme. ATA 6 is the last version of ATA, and is also referred to as ATA/133, which denotes the maximum data rate for the interface— 133 Megabytes per second.
What is Active Partition?
This is the partition that has been marked in the Master Partition Table as containing the boot information. Only one partition can be marked as active, though more than one can contain the boot information.
What is Access Time?
Reading data from or writing data to a hard disk involves the rotation of the spindle to bring the required sector under the read/write head, and the motion of the read / write head to the desired track on the platter. The access time is the sum of the time taken for these.
What are Code-names?
CPU manufacturers use a code-name for a CPU during its development. Once the product is launched, it gets a formal name, which is the name of the current product family. Usually, a new codename points to improvements in the core, so even if all CPUs in the product family carry the same name, a knowledge of their code names can help identify internal differences. For example, Intel Core 2 Duo CPUs have different internal properties corresponding to different code-names.
What is Transistor count?
This refers to the number of transistors included in the CPU core. The transistor count is influenced not just by the complexity of the core, but also the size of the on-die cache. The transistor count of a Intel Core 2 Duo CPU with a 2 MB cache is 151.6 million.
What is TDP?
Thermal Design Profile refers to the average energy (expressed in watts) in the form of heat that the HSF has to dissipate from the CPU. This can be taken as a rule-of-thumb measure of the energy consumed by the CPU.
What is HyperThreading?
This was a technology used by Intel to improve CPU utilisation by splitting a processing workload into parallel threads. Thanks to HyperThreading, the CPU appeared to the OS as multi-core. To make use of this feature, it was essential that the OS and motherboard supported it.
What is Overclocking?
Overclocking refers to the art of making a computer component perform at levels exceeding those set by the manufacturer. Components like the CPU, RAM, and graphics cards can be overclocked.
What is HSF?
Short for Heat Sink Fan unit, this refers to the aluminium block and fan unit placed over the CPU to aid in dissipation of heat. While most stock HSF units are made of aluminium and use a fan, fancier cooling solutions made of copper and using liquid coolants are also available.
What is Pipelining?
This refers to the internal data processing pathways of a CPU. The CPU processes data through different stages, like Fetch, Decode, Execute, and Store. By Pipelining, it becomes possible to perform these stages independently and on different bits of data. This allows for more efficient use of CPU cycles.
Modern CPUs have increased the number of stages in the pipeline, and also use advanced techniques like branch prediction, which is used to estimate the possible outcome of an if/else condition, to ensure that every stage of the pipeline is utilised. The performance of the CPU is greatly influenced by the way it implements pipelining.
What is PGA?
Short for Pin Grid Array, this type of packaging has a grid of conducting pins projecting from the package, which connect into the socket. PGA is available in different formats like FC PGA for Flipped Chip PGA, mPGA for micro PGA, and OPGA or organic PGA. AMD CPUs use this form of package.
What is Package type?
Every CPU is packaged to ensure that its core components are protected, while allowing connection with the motherboard. Package types seen in current CPUs include PGA, BGA, and LGA.
What is Multiplier?
Originally, all the components on a system operated at the same frequency. But with improvements in technology, the rest of the system became a bottleneck to the CPU achieving its full potential. This problem was solved by allowing the CPU to operate multiple cycles for every cycle that the system operated. This factor is called the Multiplier. Earlier it was possible for the user to set the multiplier using switches on the motherboard, but now, except for the high-end CPUs, most CPUs come with a set multiplier.
What is Multi-core CPU?
Many present CPUs are multi-core, meaning that there exist more than one computational unit on the same CPU. This allows for better performance when dealing with several jobs simultaneously. Both the major manufacturers offer quad-core CPUs.
What is LGA?
A Land Grid Array package is the latest form of packaging, seen in Intel’s latest CPUs. This form of package does away with pins or other projections, and offers sockets only. The pins are present on the socket in the motherboard.
What is FSB?
The Front Side Bus is the data channel between the CPU and the system RAM. In turn, the Back Side Bus refers to the link between the CPU and the cache memory within the CPU die itself. The FSB frequency is the speed at which the bus operates, and is an indicator of the number of times the CPU interacts with the rest of the system. Usually, the CPU itself works much faster than the FSB (see Multiplier).
What is FPU?
Floating Point Unit; a sub-unit of the CPU core. The CPU is made up of different functional sub-units. There is the ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit), the FPU, Registers (temporary storage areas), and the caches. The CPU Core refers to all components of the CPU except the caches; it forms the area that is responsible for the actual computation.
What is Fabrication process?
This term is used to refer to the smallest distance between two components in the CPU. All CPUs contain miniature circuits etched on a silicon chip. The latest Intel CPUs use a 45-nanometre process.
What is Die size?
A Die refers to the block of silica that contains the core logic of a CPU. The die size is affected by the fabrication process and the number of transistors included within.
What is Cool ‘n’ Quiet / Speed Step?
These refer to the power management schemes used by AMD and Intel respectively. This allows the CPU to conserve energy by altering its speed according to the processing load. At slower speeds, the power consumption is decreased.
What is Cache memory?
All CPUs presently made have two components in their die – the processing core and some memory. The memory is used to store frequently-used data so that the CPU doesn’t have to wait for the data to be fetched from other, slower storage areas like the system RAM or hard disk. This temporary storage is referred to as the cache. Unlike system RAM, cache is made of more expensive Static RAM, which does not require refreshing. There can be multiple caches per CPU. The cache that is closest to the CPU core is called the Level 1 cache, and is most frequently accessed by the CPU. The subordinate cache, called the Level 2 cache, is approached only if the data is not available in the L1 cache. Some high-end CPUs also sport a Level 3 cache. Cache sizes tend to increase with their Levels, with L1 caches being smaller than L2. In current CPUs, the L1 cache tops out at 128 KB per core, while the L2 cache tops out at 8 MB per core.
What is BGA?
A Ball Grid Array (BGA) package is similar to a PGA package, except that the role of the pins is taken over by small balls of conductive material. The advantage is that unlike pins, the conductors are not easily bent. Unfortunately, BGA CPUs are soldered right onto the motherboard, and users cannot replace them. This form of packaging is seen in some embedded CPUs like those from VIA.
What is 32-bit / 64-bit CPU?
“32/64-bit” refers to the width of the address bus and registers used by the CPU core. A 64-bit CPU has a 64-bit wide address bus and 64- bit wide registers. CPUs access data in the RAM by using the address bus. The breadth of the bus influences the amount of RAM that can be addressed. A 32-bit bus allows a maximum of 4 GB of RAM to be accessed. A 64-bit CPU, obviously, allows for more RAM to be used – about 16 exabytes (1 exabyte = 1,000,000,000 gigabytes, approximately). A 64-bit register can store 64 bits of data simultaneously. To fully utilise a 64-bit CPU, the operating system and application need to support the 64-bit mode of operation.
What is SD RAM?
Synchronous Dynamic RAM was an improved version of DRAM that synchronised all its functions to a single frequency, usually the system’s FSB frequency. The frequency refers to the rate at which the RAM would perform an action, namely refreshing, reading, or storing. SD RAM is available in various frequencies, with the fastest modules capable of running at 266 MHz (high performance modules, targeted at enthusiasts, which perform at higher frequencies, are also available). SD RAM modules have 168 contacts. After the release of DDR SDRAM, the original SDRAM began to be referred to as SDR SDRAM (Single Data Rate SDRAM).
What is Registered RAM / Buffered RAM?
This type of RAM module had additional storage areas – called buffers or registers – where the data is stored temporarily and checked for data integrity before being transferred. Similar in use to ECC RAM, though using a different method, this type of RAM is needed in servers, which require high levels of data integrity.
What is RDRAM?
RAMBUS Direct RAM was based on a technology developed by RAMBUS. Unlike SDRAM, it used a serial mode of data transfer, and though the technology was considered superior to DDR SDRAM, it’s expensiveness made it unpopular. RDRAM modules are called RIMMs.
What is RAS to CAS delay?
This is the number of clock cycles that intervene between the identification of the row with the RAS and the start of launching the CAS. This is displayed as “tRCD” in the BIOS.
What is ECC RAM?
An Error Correction Code (ECC) RAM module is a special type of module that includes additional components to verify the integrity of data stored in or transferred by system RAM. This is needed in critical systems that require high levels of data integrity, like servers.
What is DRAM?
Dynamic RAM refers to volatile RAM that is constantly refreshed to prevent stored contents from being lost. All modern RAM is of this type, though there have been improvements. Data is stored in the form of rows and columns, with each storage area in RAM having a unique address that is a combination of the row and column number. DRAM was available in different types like SDRAM, EDO (Extended Data Out) RAM, FP (Fast Paging) RAM, and more, all of which are now obsolete except for SDRAM.
What is DIMM?
Dual Inline Memory Module refers to the package in which RAM is available. Unlike the earlier and now obsolete SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module), a DIMM has contacts on both sides of the module.
What is DDR3 SDRAM?
This is the latest iteration of SDRAM, and increases the internal bus speed to 8 times the memory clock, effectively operating at 8 times the frequency. DDR3 800 operates at 100 MHz and is also referred to as PC3 6400. DDR3 is still a cutting-edge technology, and is supported by very few motherboards and CPUs. DDR3 modules also have 240 pins, but they are keyed differently, so they cannot be inserted into a DDR2 slot.
What is DDR2 SDRAM?
An evolution of DDR SDRAM, DDR2 allows four data transfers per clock cycle, by clocking the internal bus at twice the speed of the memory clock. Therefore the effective frequency of the memory becomes 4 times its actual frequency. A DDR2 800 module operates at 200 MHz. As in the case of DDR SDRAM, the alternate notation relying on the maximum data transfer speeds is also used. PC2 3200 refers to DDR2 400. A DDR2 module has 240 contacts, and is not backward-compatible.
What is CAS Latency?
Refers to the delay between the CAS and the arrival of the data from the RAM. It is an indicator of the speed of the memory, and is expressed in the number of clock cycles: a CAS Latency of 3 means that three clock cycles are needed after the CAS for data to be produced by the RAM.
What is CAS?
To be able to access data from a particular storage area in RAM, the RAS and CAS procedures are needed to provide the address of the storage area. The RAM is organised as an array of storage areas. Each storage area can therefore be uniquely identified by the number of the row and the number of the column that intersect at that position. Row Access Strobe (RAS) is the process of identifying the row from which data needs to be read. This step precedes CAS. Column Access Strobe is the process of identifying the column from which data is to be accessed.
What is RAM?
RAM is short for Random Access Memory. In common parlance, RAM refers to system memory, the temporary storage area that holds all the data that the CPU is working on. All data that requires processing by the CPU and the results of the processing are first stored in the system memory.
RAM, per se, refers to the type of storage medium that allows any data stored within to be directly accessed without having to access the preceding data (the latter mode being called sequential access). System memory is volatile, which means that the stored data is lost when the device is powered down.
What are USB ports?
USB ports are ubiquitous, with many newer motherboards offering up to 10 USB connections. USB is available in two common versions – version 1.1, which has a maximum data transfer rate of 12 Megabits per second, and version 2, which tops out at 480 Megabits per second. Besides speed, USB also allows up to 116 compatible devices to be connected in a daisy-chain into a single port, and it also supports hot-swapping (the system would detect the newly-connected device without requiring a restart)
What is Socket?
The motherboard carries the interface to connect the CPU. This is referred to as a Socket. There are many socket types, with no clear naming scheme, though most are named after the number of pin sockets they contain. The latest Intel CPUs require a Socket 775 interface, while the latest AMD processors require a Socket AM2 interface. Some older CPUs like the Pentium 2 used a slot-like interface, called Slot 1.
What is Serial port?
DB 9 or Serial port is a 9-pin port that transfers data serially. It is increasingly being left out from the back panel in favour of faster ports like USB. It is used today mostly for external modems.
What are RAM slots?
These refer to the interface to connect RAM modules. Memory is organised in the form of banks, with one or more slots constituting a bank. Each bank has a dedicated channel to the memory controller. Many motherboards, thanks to their Northbridges, implement a dual-channel RAM mode, wherein the effective bandwidth of the bus is doubled. To use the memory in dual-channel mode, one slot in each bank needs to be fitted with RAM modules that are similar in all respects.
What is PS2 port?
The PS2 port is used to connect PS2-compatible keyboard and mouse. The violet-coloured port is usually for the keyboard, and the green one is for the mouse.
What are Ports?
Every motherboard offers a plethora of ports on its back panel. The most commonly seen ports on today’s PCs are PS2, USB, VGA, LAN, Serial, and Audio Sockets.
What is PCIE (PCI-Express)?
PCI-Express is the latest type of expansion slot. Unlike the AGP and PCI buses which transfer data in a parallel fashion, PCIE offers serial data transfer. It is designed to be a point-to-point bus, and so it is not shared by other components. The bus is implemented as a pair, with two lanes per bus. So it can act in full duplex mode, meaning that data can be simultaneously sent and received over different lanes at full speed. It is also modular, in that the number of PCIE lanes can be increased or decreased based on the need of the device. So a PCIE x16 slot that has 16 lanes (8 lanes each for carrying data in one direction) can be used for graphics cards, while a slower PCIE x2 slot can be used for less demanding components like modems and sound cards. Each PCI-Express lane can transfer 2 Gigabits of data per second, which translates to 250 Megabytes per second.
What is PCI?
Peripheral Component Interconnect is still widely seen in motherboards, though it is older than AGP. The wide availability of PCI cards is one reason for this. This bus is 32 bits wide and operates at 33 MHz, and has a maximum data transfer speed of 132 Megabytes per second. This bandwidth is divided between all slots and also the storage devices, like the hard disks.
What is PCB (Printed Circuit Board)?
The foundation of every electronic device is the board on which every component is connected. The PCB consists of minute conductors, usually of copper, seen as fine lines criss-crossing the surface, mounted on an insulated substrate. The minute pathways actually carry data signals or power between the various components that are eventually soldered on the PCB. PCBs come in various sizes and shapes, and besides the motherboard, are also seen in expansion cards (sound cards, graphics cards, etc.) and RAM modules.
What is Parallel port?
The DB 25 or Parallel port is the traditional port for older printers. These are rarely seen today.
What is LAN port?
RJ-45, or the LAN port, allows the PC to be connected to a network, whether to a LAN or to the Internet via a broadband modem.
What are Jumpers?
These refer to the open contacts on the motherboard that can be used to configure different settings of the board. With time, the number of jumpers has come down, with most of its functionality shifted to the CMOS / BIOS. Still, many motherboards today do have one set of jumpers, which is used to reset the BIOS settings.
What is Form Factor?
This is a name to denote the specifications of a motherboard – like dimensions, power supply type, location of mounting holes, number of ports on the back panel, etc. The most commonly-used motherboards are of the ATX or Micro ATX form factor, which are used for Desktop systems.
An ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) motherboard is 12? x 9.6? in size, and supports the most number of expansion slots. Micro ATX is shorter than ATX, at 9.6? x 9.6?, and was created to reduce total cost. The original ATX specifications have been updated to include technological improvements and reconcile the requirements of later PCs. For example, the latest ATX form factor specification includes the 24-pin power connector, which the original did not. There are many other form factors that cater to different PC designs: BTX, ITX, mini ITX, FTX, and more. VIA, a computer component manufacturer that focuses on power efficiency, has been creating mini ITX motherboards, which include all the functionality of the larger motherboards. With all important functions – video, audio, USB, and LAN – on board the motherboard, there is need for only one PCI slot and a RAM slot, besides a socket for the CPU, usually a VIA processor that consumes less than 5 watts. Such systems are ideal for use in situations where the workload is low and where the systems need to be left running – like downloading very large files.
What is FireWire port?
FireWire ports are not as common as USB, but do make an occasional appearance on the back panel. FireWire exists in two versions: FireWire 400, which offers a maximum data transfer rate of 400 Mbps, and FireWire 800, which offers double that.
What are Expansion slots?
Earlier motherboards rarely offered additional functionality besides offering a place for the CPU and RAM to be plugged in. The capability of the system had to be “expanded” with the use of external cards that carried the additional circuitry to fulfil the function. Additional circuitry usually included hard disk controllers, display adapters, sound system, etc., all of which are nowadays present “onboard” – referring to the inclusion of all this circuitry on the motherboard. Today, expansion slots on motherboards are mostly PCI, PCIE, and AGP. A couple of rarely-used slots are CNR (Communications and Networking Riser) and AMR (Audio Modem Riser). These special slots were designed to incorporate the interfaces for networking and audio devices; they did not contain the processing circuitry, and merely acted as a channel. The processing was done by the host CPU.
What is Display port?
The 15-pin, mini DB 15 port, also called the VGA / Display port is used to connect an analogue monitor. With LCD monitors becoming popular, the DVI (Digital Video Interface) port is also frequently seen.
What is a Chipset?
Refers to a set, usually a pair, of microprocessors that are present on the motherboard, and which controls the communication between every component of the system – the CPU, the RAM, the expansion cards, and other peripherals plugged into the system.
The CPU has garnered all the attention among computer users, but the system’s performance is just as much determined by the much-ignored Chipset. The Chipset usually comprises the Northbridge and the Southbridge. The names are derived from the relative position of the microprocessors with respect to the CPU. The chip closer to the CPU is called the Northbridge, and the one placed further away is referred to as the Southbridge. The Northbridge has traditionally controlled the communication of the CPU with the rest of the system, namely the memory, the graphics subsystem (either onboard graphics or the graphic card(s)), and the Southbridge. The Southbridge is traditionally involved with controlling the communication between the Northbridge and the peripherals, namely expansion cards not plugged into the graphics slot like the sound card and internal modem, storage devices like the hard disks and optical drives, and the ports – COM, USB, etc.
Exceptions to the traditional roles exist in the form of the chipsets for the AMD Athlon 64 series of processors, since the RAM controller has been included in the CPU itself; the Northbridge is no longer burdened with this task.
What is BIOS / CMOS?
Though often interchangeably used, the two terms refer to different things. BIOS (Basic Input Output System) refers to a set of instructions that are critical for the functioning of the system. These instructions include information about the components connected to the motherboard, like the hard disk, RAM, and the configuration of the many onboard subsystems. CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) refers to the chip on which the BIOS instructions are stored. CMOS is the name of the technology behind the chip that stores the BIOS. Present-day CMOS is technically called EEPROM for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory. These can be rewritten to, and this allows the BIOS instructions of a motherboard to be updated when required. The process of updating the BIOS instructions is called Flashing.
What is AGP port?
The Accelerated Graphics Port is present only in very few new motherboards; it is being phased out. This was a slot dedicated to enhance the graphics capabilities of the system by allowing a high-speed direct bus to the RAM, unlike PCI, the other prevalent bus. (A bus refers to a channel that is used to transfer data.) It operated at 66 MHz and had a 32-bit width. The AGP specifications have passed through three revisions (AGP 1, 2, and 3). The original AGP specification, now referred to as AGP 1, specified only 1X and 2X speeds. It also mandated an AGP slot that provided 3.3 V. AGP2 extended support to the 4X mode of operation. It also specified an AGP slot that provided 1.5 V, but AGP2 cards could work in the older AGP1 slots. To maintain backward compatibility to AGP1 cards, a Universal AGP Slot allowed cards of both versions to be run in it. AGP3 supported speeds up to 8X and would only work in slots that operated at 1.5 V.
The AGP slots differed in the construction, so that 3.3 V and 1.5 V slots and cards were not compatible: the 3.3 V AGP slot has a par- tition towards the left, while the 1.5 V slot has a partition towards the right. Each of these slots also had a Pro version that extended the slot a bit to the right. The AGP Pro slot was for those cards that needed additional power (which was supplied by the Pro extension). The cards were also similarly-notched. Maximum data transfer speeds offered were: AGP 1X: 266 Megabytes per second; AGP 2X: 533 Megabytes per second; AGP 4X: 1066 Megabytes per second; AGP 8X: 2133 Megabytes/second.
What are Audio sockets?
A set of sockets that allowed speakers and a microphone to be connected, usually three in number. With multi-channel audio becoming common, the number of sockets has risen to six. The function of each of these sockets is configurable from the audio driver.
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